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\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
\usepackage[hidelinks]{hyperref}
\usepackage[top=2cm]{geometry}
\usepackage[font=small]{caption}
\usepackage{handouts}
\usepackage{polyglossia}
\setdefaultlanguage{british}
\setotherlanguage{hebrew}
\newfontfamily\dutchfont[Mapping=tex-text]{Latin Modern Roman}
\newfontfamily\hebrewfont[Scale=MatchLowercase]{Ezra SIL}
\DeclareTextFontCommand{\ez}{\hebrewfont}
\usepackage{stfloats}
\usepackage{subcaption}
\usepackage{enumitem}
\title{\large Handout of ``Voice in Classical Hebrew against Its Semitic Background''\footnote{Holger Gzella in \emph{Orientalia} (2009).}}
\author{Camil Staps}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
Semitic languages generally express the semantic distinction between active and non-active using \term{verbal stems}\pagenr{292}.
There is a base stem (the \term{G-stem}) and three principal derived stems:
the \term{D-stem}, where the middle root consonant is lengthened,
indicating plurality\note{of subject, object or action} for high-transitivity verbs
and factivity for low-transitivity verbs;
the \term{C-stem}, which expresses causativity; and
the \term{N-stem}, which has a prefix starting with /n-/
and at least in some cases serves as the medio-passive of the G-stem\pagenrs{293--4}.
An infix /t/ may be used to indicate reflexivity, reciprocality or medio-passiveness.
Many verbs derived from nouns do not occur in the G-stem.
Also, over time, usage often tends to shift away from the G-stem.
Therefore, the description in this paragraph is very rough\pagenr{296}.
In Central Semitic languages\note{Hebrew, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Arabic, and others},
\term{internal passives} (where the consonantal skeleton remains unchanged) of the G, D and C stems exist\pagenr{297}.
Generally speaking,
N is used to focus on the action alone, while
Gp presupposes an external agent in the background and
Gt is used for reciprocity and reflexivity\pagenr{300}.
In Hebrew, the Gt and Ct stems seem to have disappeared,
the internal passive Gp only survives in residual forms
but the other (medio-)passive and reflexive stems\note{N, Dt, Dp, Cp} remain\pagenr{303}.
The surviving forms seem to have absorbed some of the functions of the abolished ones.
The N-stem has the widest semantic range, covering (medio-)passive, reciprocal and `tolerative'%
\note{where the subject allows himself to undergo the event --- often influenced by theological considerations}
meanings,
whereas reflexive ones are rare and can often be analysed as agentless middles\pagenr{305}.
For intransitive verbs, it may give an manifestative notion%
\note{`show oneself as holy'}\pagenr{306}.
In general, the function of the N-stem is to \emph{highlight an action without considering the agent or its involvement}\pagenr{307},
rather emphasising the \emph{affectedness of the subject}\pagenr{312}.
The Gp on the other hand is said to presuppose an agent in the background ---
though this distinction broke down long before the classical period\pagenr{313}.
\parnote{Low-transitivity verbs prefer G for imperfect and imperative, but N for perfect and participle.
This is a secondary development, and does not indicate a difference in meaning\pagenr{314}.}
\parnote{
The Ct disappeared, and its function was absorbed by Dt;
a logical development, for factivity and causativity are similar for low-transitivity verbs\pagenr{315}.}
When both Dt and N occur,
N expresses a quality inherent or objectively present in the subject,
while Dt indicates an attained quality or `acting-as'\pagenr{317}.
When both D and C occur,
D focuses on the result
and C on the underlying process\pagenr{318}.
\emph{However, these distinctions are by no means stable.}
Summarising, voice interacts with other grammatical categories due to semantic overlap, especially Aktionsart.
The use of the N-stem with high-transitivity verbs implies reduced valency and detransitivisation.
For low-transitivity verbs, the Aktionsart is changed\pagenr{319}.
\parnote{
The passive voice and participle in particular has a resultative sense.
The Dt has a durative or frequentative sense besides the reflexive one, intersecting with the imperfective aspect\pagenr{320}.}
\end{document}
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