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\title{\large Handout of ``Voice in Classical Hebrew against Its Semitic Background''\footnote{Holger Gzella in \emph{Orientalia} (2009).}}
\author{Camil Staps}

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\maketitle

Semitic languages generally express the semantic distinction between active and non-active using \term{verbal stems}\pagenr{292}.
There is a base stem (the \term{G-stem}) and three principal derived stems:
	the \term{D-stem}, where the middle root consonant is lengthened,
		indicating plurality\note{of subject, object or action} for high-transitivity verbs
		and factivity for low-transitivity verbs;
	the \term{C-stem}, which expresses causativity; and
	the \term{N-stem}, which has a prefix starting with /n-/
		and at least in some cases serves as the medio-passive of the G-stem\pagenrs{293--4}.
An infix /t/ may be used to indicate reflexivity, reciprocality or medio-passiveness.
Many verbs derived from nouns do not occur in the G-stem.
Also, over time, usage often tends to shift away from the G-stem.
Therefore, the description in this paragraph is very rough\pagenr{296}.

In Central Semitic languages\note{Hebrew, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Arabic, and others},
	\term{internal passives} (where the consonantal skeleton remains unchanged) of the G, D and C stems exist\pagenr{297}.
Generally speaking,
	N is used to focus on the action alone, while
	Gp presupposes an external agent in the background and
	Gt is used for reciprocity and reflexivity\pagenr{300}.

In Hebrew, the Gt and Ct stems seem to have disappeared,
	the internal passive Gp only survives in residual forms
	but the other (medio-)passive and reflexive stems\note{N, Dt, Dp, Cp} remain\pagenr{303}.
The surviving forms seem to have absorbed some of the functions of the abolished ones.

The N-stem has the widest semantic range, covering (medio-)passive, reciprocal and `tolerative'%
	\note{where the subject allows himself to undergo the event --- often influenced by theological considerations}
	meanings,
	whereas reflexive ones are rare and can often be analysed as agentless middles\pagenr{305}.
For intransitive verbs, it may give an manifestative notion%
	\note{`show oneself as holy'}\pagenr{306}.
In general, the function of the N-stem is to \emph{highlight an action without considering the agent or its involvement}\pagenr{307},
	rather emphasising the \emph{affectedness of the subject}\pagenr{312}.
The Gp on the other hand is said to presuppose an agent in the background ---
	though this distinction broke down long before the classical period\pagenr{313}.

\parnote{Low-transitivity verbs prefer G for imperfect and imperative, but N for perfect and participle.
	This is a secondary development, and does not indicate a difference in meaning\pagenr{314}.}

\parnote{
	The Ct disappeared, and its function was absorbed by Dt;
		a logical development, for factivity and causativity are similar for low-transitivity verbs\pagenr{315}.}
When both Dt and N occur,
	N expresses a quality inherent or objectively present in the subject,
	while Dt indicates an attained quality or `acting-as'\pagenr{317}.
When both D and C occur,
	D focuses on the result
	and C on the underlying process\pagenr{318}.
\emph{However, these distinctions are by no means stable.}

Summarising, voice interacts with other grammatical categories due to semantic overlap, especially Aktionsart.
The use of the N-stem with high-transitivity verbs implies reduced valency and detransitivisation.
For low-transitivity verbs, the Aktionsart is changed\pagenr{319}.
\parnote{
	The passive voice and participle in particular has a resultative sense.
	The Dt has a durative or frequentative sense besides the reflexive one, intersecting with the imperfective aspect\pagenr{320}.}

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