Continuing Benton

2 files changed, 169 insertions, 13 deletions

diff --git a/benton-handout.tex b/benton-handout.tex
index b592963..2d83d4a 100644
--- a/benton-handout.tex
+++ b/benton-handout.tex
@@ -43,11 +43,11 @@
 }
 
 \summary{
-	\subsubsection*{Aspect}
+	\subsection*{Aspect}
 	Benton takes from Keenan (1985) the idea that when a language has multiple passives,
 	they are distinguished by \term{aspect}\pagenr{102}.
 	\criticism{
-		he then takes from later linguists new views on aspect\pagenr{104--5},
+		he then takes from later linguists new views on aspect\pagenrs{104--5},
 		and applies Keenan's theory using those ideas about aspect.
 		It is unclear if Keenan's theory applies to those new ideas.
 	}
@@ -58,11 +58,11 @@
 			which presents features of a situation.
 	Different kinds of situation aspect can be categorised by the features
 		static--dynamic, durative--instantaneous and telic--atelic.
-	Based on Smith and Pustejovsky, different types of events can be depicted in diagrams\pagenr{108--9}%
+	Based on Smith and Pustejovsky, different types of events can be depicted in diagrams\pagenrs{108--9}%
 		\note{see \autoref{fig:situation-transitions}}.
 	Different aspects may be communicated lexically, contextually and morphologically, depending on the language\pagenr{112}.
 
-	\plainnote{
+	\parnote{
 		\begin{figure*}[b]
 			\centering
 			\color{black}
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@
 }
 
 \summary{
-	\subsubsection*{Passive}
+	\subsection*{Passive}
 	Benton distinguishes the semantical
 		\term{Agent} (A)\note{volitionally performs an action, typically affecting another entity},
 		\term{Patient} (O)\note{undergoes the action of the Agent} and
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@
 }
 
 \summary{
-	\subsubsection*{Middle}
+	\subsection*{Middle}
 	The middle voice presents a large formal and functional variety between languages\pagenr{128}.
 	In cognitive linguistics, scholars look for the middle's prototype\pagenr{131}.
 	According to Manney, passive and middle are used in similar situations,
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@
 	Kemmer claims that the middle distinguishes itself by its level of distinguishability of the participants\pagenr{135}%
 		\note{see \autoref{fig:middle-transitivity-line}}.
 
-	\plainnote{
+	\parnote{
 		\begin{figure*}[b]
 			\centering
 			\color{black}
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@
 }
 
 \summary{
-	\subsubsection*{Summary of passive and middle voice}
+	\subsection*{Summary of passive and middle voice}
 	Both middle and passive demote A.
 	Active focuses on energy from A,
 		while passive and middle focus on the trajectory towards S.
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@
 	That passive and middle are defined by the same argument relationships explains internal overlap\pagenr{157}.
 	\criticism{It is unclear if there is a difference between the reasons for internal and external overlap.}
 
-	\plainnote{
+	\parnote{
 		\begin{table*}[b]
 			\centering
 			\begin{tabular}{p{14em} p{14em}}
@@ -170,11 +170,11 @@
 \note{%
 	\autoref{fig:voice-hierarchy} shows the voice hierarchy as proposed by Benton\pagenr{158},
 	which shows that passive \emph{function} can be performed by both middle and passive \emph{voice}.}
-\plainnote{
+\parnote{
 	\begin{figure}[h]
 		\centering
 		\color{black}
-		\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=3em,scale=0.9,every node/.style={rectangle,draw}]
+		\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=3em,scale=0.9,every node/.style={rectangle,draw,minimum height=1.6em}]
 			\node (event) {Event};
 			\node[below left of=event] (active) {Active};
 			\node[below right of=event] (passive) {Passive};
@@ -204,6 +204,160 @@
 			and ``The book reads easily'' (middle)}\pagenr{165},
 		or the property of a process unfolding on the S\pagenr{167}.
 	In some languages, the middle can be both eventive and stative.
+
+	Since some languages do not let all transitive verbs appear in the middle,
+	Fagan claims that situation aspect plays a more important role than agentivity%
+		\note{E.g. \emph{reach}, \emph{hit} and \emph{kick} don't appear in the middle}\pagenr{169}.
+	Most verbs in the middle indicate a process (accomplishments).
+	When an achievement or semelfactive verb appears in the middle,
+		this can be to focus on the process leading to the event.
+}
+
+\summary{
+	While passive and middle voice have a close functional relationship
+		(sharing event schemas and A-demotion),
+		they distinguish from each other.
+	The passive corresponds to anterior states,
+		leading to a possibly stative reading.
+	The middle, on the other hand,
+		corresponds to activities, usually before they reach a final state.
+	This leads to the \note{revised} voice hierarchy in \autoref{fig:voice-hierarchy-revised}\pagenr{172}.
+
+	\begin{figure}[h]
+		\centering
+		\color{black}
+		\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=3em,scale=0.9,every node/.style={rectangle,draw,minimum height=1.6em}]
+			\node (event) {Event};
+			\node[below left of=event] (active) {Active};
+			\node[below right of=event] (passive) {Passive};
+			\node[below left of=passive] (activity) {Activity};
+			\node[below right of=passive] (stative) {Stative};
+
+			\draw (event) -> (active);
+			\draw (event) -> (passive);
+			\draw (passive) -> (activity);
+			\draw (passive) -> (stative);
+		\end{tikzpicture}
+		\ifshownotes
+			\caption{Voice hierarchy (revised)\label{fig:voice-hierarchy-revised}}
+		\else
+			\caption{Voice hierarchy\label{fig:voice-hierarchy-revised}}
+		\fi
+	\end{figure}
+}
+
+\summary{
+	\subsection*{Application on Biblical Hebrew}
+	The claim is that the Niphal is stative, while the Hitpael corresponds to an activity\pagenr{178}.
+	A speaker first chooses between active and passive, depending on how much he wants to highlight the A.
+	Both middle and passive demote A and may promote O, hence the apparent internal overlap of these forms.
+	If the speaker wants to focus on the transition point and/or the resulting state, he uses a passive form (Niphal).
+	If he wants to focus on the process of the event, he uses a middle form (Hitpael)\pagenr{179}.
+	The external overlap is explained by the shared function of Niphal and Hitpael.
+}
+
+\parnote{
+	\subsection*{Approach}
+	Benton takes pairs of sentences, one with a Niphal and one with a Hitpael ---
+		most helpfully with the same root and in the same context,
+		but most often with the same root and a different context.
+	These pairs are called \term{minimal pairs}.
+}
+
+\summary{
+	\subsection*{Hebrew evidence}
+
+	\subsubsection*{Basic transitive}
+	The distinction between state (Niphal) and activity (Hitpael) can be found in minimal pairs%
+		\note{\emph{pour out} in Lam.~2:11--12},
+	also when there is no contrast in agentivity%
+		\note{Josh.~10:116 vs. 1~Sam.~13:6; Dt.~15:12 vs. Dt.~28:68}\pagenrs{185--198}.
+	Some Niphal forms are undoubtedly processes%
+		\note{1~Kgs.~6:7; Lv.~26:36},
+		and can only be translated according to the suggested theory in a rather forced way.
+		That these cases contradict the theory suggests that these verbs do not allow Hitpaels.
+		\criticism{Benton seems to be assuming what he wants to show correct.}
+		Why that would be is unclear\pagenr{202}.
+
+	This state--activity distinction extends to a distinction between one-time (Niphal) and iterative (Hitpael) actions%
+		\note{2.~Sam.~17:9 vs. 1~Sam.~23:23}\pagenr{207},
+		and to a distinction between inceptive (Hitpael) and non-inceptive (Niphal) actions%
+		\note{Lv.~5:3 vs. Dt.~22:1}\pagenr{209}.
+
+	Verbs with high degrees of affectedness%
+		\note{e.g. \emph{kill}, where the Patient is affected to a high degree}
+		prefer the Niphal over the Hitpael.
+	This suggests that the use of a Hitpael for these verbs shows reduced affectedness\pagenrs{204--7}.
+
+	\criticism{by adding iterativity, inceptivity and affectedness as defining features,
+		internal overlap is recreated,
+		even though these features somehow relate to situation aspect.}
+
+	\parnote{Also in cases of a semantic middle, the theory stands.
+		None of the stems considered express passive, middle or reflexive consistently.
+		The Niphal functions as passive, middle and reflexive, the Hitpael, as middle and maybe reflexive\pagenrs{210--25}.}
+
+	% pp. 225 - 235 not considered.
+
+	\parnote{In rare t-stems (Nitpael, Hitpolel, Hitpalpel) situation aspect seems to play a role,
+		but nothing can be said really due to lack of evidence\pagenrs{235--7}.}
+
+	\parnote{Benton makes claims about how different stems can be used to literary effect\pagenrs{241 ff.},
+		but I don't see why the given examples cannot be explained using the base theory.}
+
+	\subsubsection*{Experiencer transitive}
+	Experiencer verbs passivize in a similar way to agentive verbs\pagenr{252}.
+	They usually occur in Niphal,
+		which indicates that Biblical Hebrew focuses mostly on the final state of themes, not on the process of approaching this state.
+	The distinction between Niphal and Hitpael seems less rigorous for these verbs%
+	\note{examples 63 and 64}, but different stems may be used to express nuances\pagenr{257}.
+
+	Some examples suggest that the Hitpael may have a reciprocal aspect%
+		\note{the verb \emph{see}, Ex.~23:15 vs. 2~Kgs.~14:8},
+		which seems logical because it makes the Niphal more passive\pagenr{262}.
+	\parnote{The verb \emph{hear} occurs only in the Niphal,
+		and can only have inanimate Themes, which supports this theory.}
+
+	\parnote{The activity aspect seems to correlate with the perfective aspect,
+		and the stative aspect, with the imperfective\pagenr{269}.}
+
+	\subsubsection*{Basic stative}
+	Benton's theory allows for the passivization of stative verbs,
+		whereas this is difficult in other models due to their single semantic role.
+
+	Passive stative verbs indicate that the subject undergoes a transition.
+	With a Niphal, the writer shows that the transition has finished,
+		with a Hitpael, that it is still taking place\pagenr{274}.
+	\parnote{Lam.~2:11-12 (\emph{faint}) is an example of how the distinction may be used to indicate a flashback.}
+	A Niphal may follow a Hitpael of the same verb\note{e.g. Lv.~11:43}
+		to stress both the process and the final state\pagenrs{276 ff.}.
+
+	A number of verbs occur only in the Niphal or, more commonly, only in the Hitpael.
+	This may be due to historical accident, or due to an idiosyncratic feature of the verb.
+	There are some closely related replacements for the Niphal (stative Qal, adjective, or Pual)
+		which may explain why the Hitpael without Niphal contrast is more frequent.
+	The preference for a certain stem does not seem predictable and is thus likely lexical.
+	Hence, the distribution gives us information about the meaning of the verb%
+		\note{e.g. \emph{angry} occurs often in the Hitpael, showing that it is conceived as an activity,
+			while \emph{worried} occurs often in the Niphal, showing that it is conceived as stative}\pagenr{291}.
+	\parnote{For example, \emph{holy}
+		appears in the Niphal almost only when it refers to Yahweh,
+		and in the Hitpael almost never when it refers to Yahweh ---
+		perhaps indicating that Yahweh is in a constant state of holiness\pagenr{293}.
+		When the holy state of a person needs to be expressed, the Pual is used, to avoid ambiguity.}
+
+	\parnote{There are several other nuances, e.g. the ``act as X'' and denominative Hitpaels.}
+
+	Since a Qal does not indicate whether a state has been achieved or not,
+		the problem of external overlap between Qal and Hitpael arises\pagenr{296}%
+		\note{the solution is unclear to me}.
+
+	\subsubsection*{Basic intransitive}
+	Here, Patient, Theme and Mover verbs are considered.
+	These verbs have usually one argument, and thus passivization is difficult,
+		since it usually reduces the number of arguments.
+	Nevertheless, Niphael and Hitpael forms are not uncommon for these verbs.
+	In these cases, an implicit Agent appears, in others, situation aspect is transformed.
 }
 
 \end{document}
diff --git a/handouts.sty b/handouts.sty
index d4c99cb..bd25d45 100644
--- a/handouts.sty
+++ b/handouts.sty
@@ -30,12 +30,14 @@
 
 \newcommand{\pagenr}[1]{%
 	\ifshowpagenrs\begingroup\pagenrStyle\enspace(p. #1)\endgroup\fi}
+\newcommand{\pagenrs}[1]{%
+	\ifshowpagenrs\begingroup\pagenrStyle\enspace(pp. #1)\endgroup\fi}
 \newcommand{\summary}[1]{%
 	\ifshowsummary #1\fi}
-\newcommand{\plainnote}[1]{%
+\newcommand{\parnote}[1]{%
 	\ifshownotes\begingroup\noteStyle#1\endgroup\fi}
 \newcommand{\note}[1]{%
-	\plainnote{\enspace(#1)}}
+	\parnote{\enspace(#1)}}
 \newcommand{\criticism}[1]{%
 	\ifshowcriticism\begingroup\criticismStyle\criticismStart{}#1\endgroup\fi}
 \newcommand{\term}[1]{%