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diff --git a/gzella-handout.tex b/gzella-handout.tex index 6be1b8b..a4a8c17 100644 --- a/gzella-handout.tex +++ b/gzella-handout.tex @@ -25,7 +25,9 @@ Semitic languages generally express the semantic distinction between active and non-active using \term{verbal stems}\pagenr{292}. There is a base stem (the \term{G-stem}) and three principal derived stems: - the \term{D-stem}, where the middle root consonant is lengthened; + the \term{D-stem}, where the middle root consonant is lengthened, + indicating plurality\note{of subject, object or action} for high-transitivity verbs + and factivity for low-transitivity verbs; the \term{C-stem}, which expresses causativity; and the \term{N-stem}, which has a prefix starting with /n-/ and at least in some cases serves as the medio-passive of the G-stem\pagenrs{293--4}. @@ -36,11 +38,46 @@ Therefore, the description in this paragraph is very rough\pagenr{296}. In Central Semitic languages\note{Hebrew, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Arabic, and others}, \term{internal passives} (where the consonantal skeleton remains unchanged) of the G, D and C stems exist\pagenr{297}. -\parnote{For an overview of the functions associated to the different stems, see p.~300.} +Generally speaking, + N is used to focus on the action alone, while + Gp presupposes an external agent in the background and + Gt is used for reciprocity and reflexivity\pagenr{300}. In Hebrew, the Gt and Ct stems seem to have disappeared, the internal passive Gp only survives in residual forms but the other (medio-)passive and reflexive stems\note{N, Dt, Dp, Cp} remain\pagenr{303}. The surviving forms seem to have absorbed some of the functions of the abolished ones. +The N-stem has the widest semantic range, covering (medio-)passive, reciprocal and `tolerative'% + \note{where the subject allows himself to undergo the event --- often influenced by theological considerations} + meanings, + whereas reflexive ones are rare and can often be analysed as agentless middles\pagenr{305}. +For intransitive verbs, it may give an manifestative notion% + \note{`show oneself as holy'}\pagenr{306}. +In general, the function of the N-stem is to \emph{highlight an action without considering the agent or its involvement}\pagenr{307}, + rather emphasising the \emph{affectedness of the subject}\pagenr{312}. +The Gp on the other hand is said to presuppose an agent in the background --- + though this distinction broke down long before the classical period\pagenr{313}. + +\parnote{Low-transitivity verbs prefer G for imperfect and imperative, but N for perfect and participle. + This is a secondary development, and does not indicate a difference in meaning\pagenr{314}.} + +\parnote{ + The Ct disappeared, and its function was absorbed by Dt; + a logical development, for factivity and causativity are similar for low-transitivity verbs\pagenr{315}.} +When both Dt and N occur, + N expresses a quality inherent or objectively present in the subject, + while Dt indicates an attained quality or `acting-as'\pagenr{317}. +When both D and C occur, + D focuses on the result + and C on the underlying process\pagenr{318}. +\emph{However, these distinctions are by no means stable.} + +Summarising, voice interacts with other grammatical categories due to semantic overlap, especially Aktionsart. +The use of the N-stem with high-transitivity verbs implies reduced valency and detransitivisation. +For low-transitivity verbs, the Aktionsart is changed\pagenr{319}. +\parnote{ + The passive voice and participle in particular has a resultative sense. + The Dt has a durative or frequentative sense besides the reflexive one, intersecting with the imperfective aspect\pagenr{320}.} + \end{document} |