\documentclass[9pt,twocolumn,a4paper]{extarticle}

\usepackage[top=2cm]{geometry}
\usepackage[british]{babel}
\usepackage{stfloats}

\usepackage{handouts}

\usepackage[hidelinks]{hyperref}
\usepackage{tikz}
		
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		\path[draw,<->] (start) -- (end);
	\end{tikzpicture}
}

\title{\Large Handout of ``Aspect and the Biblical Hebrew Niphal and Hitpael''\footnote{Richard Charles Benton, Jr. 2009. University of Wisonsin-Madison.}}
\author{Camil Staps}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

\summary{
	The problem with the Niphal and Hitpael stems is both
	(a) \term{internal overlap},
		that each stem covers more than one functional area (passive, middle and reflexive), and
	(b) \term{external overlap},
		that the functions of the two stems overlap with each other\pagenr{102}.
}

\summary{
	\subsubsection*{Aspect}
	Benton takes from Keenan (1985) the idea that when a language has multiple passives,
	they are distinguished by \term{aspect}\pagenr{102}.
	\criticism{
		he then takes from later linguists new views on aspect\pagenr{104--5},
		and applies Keenan's theory using those ideas about aspect.
		It is unclear if Keenan's theory applies to those new ideas.
	}
	Linguists distinguish different kinds of aspect:
		\term{viewpoint aspect},
			where a full or partial view of a situation is presented;
		\term{situation aspect},
			which presents features of a situation.
	Different kinds of situation aspect can be categorised by the features
		static--dynamic, durative--instantaneous and telic--atelic.
	Based on Smith and Pustejovsky, different types of events can be depicted in diagrams\pagenr{108--9}%
		\note{see \autoref{fig:situation-transitions}}.
	Different aspects may be communicated lexically, contextually and morphologically, depending on the language\pagenr{112}.

	\plainnote{
		\begin{figure*}[b]
			\centering
			\color{black}

			\situationtransition{$\dots$}{$\lnot$built}{$\lnot$built}{built}{built}{built}{$\dots$}

			\vspace*{1em}
			\situationtransition{}{}{}{reached}{reached}{reached}{$\dots$}

			\vspace*{1em}
			\situationtransition{}{}{}{tapped}{}{}{}

			\caption{Different types of events: accomplishment, achievement and semelfactive.\label{fig:situation-transitions}}
		\end{figure*}
	}
}

\summary{
	\subsubsection*{Passive}
	Benton distinguishes the semantical
		\term{Agent} (A)\note{volitionally performs an action, typically affecting another entity},
		\term{Patient} (O)\note{undergoes the action of the Agent} and
		\term{Subject} (S)\note{of a one-place predicate}\pagenr{116}.
	In the passive, the A-role is demoted and often the O-role is promoted to S.
	However, an S does not always correspond to an O-role%
		\note{consider ``The man went into the building,'' where `man' is an S,
			and ``The man entered the building,'' where `man' is an A:
			the \emph{syntactical} roles differ,
			while the \emph{semantical} roles are identical}.
	An A is logical, psychological, semantic and grammatical subject\pagenr{118}.
	All these aspects can be demoted, but demotion can be restricted to some types of subject, depending on the language.
}

\summary{
	\subsubsection*{Middle}
	The middle voice presents a large formal and functional variety between languages\pagenr{128}.
	In cognitive linguistics, scholars look for the middle's prototype\pagenr{131}.
	According to Manney, passive and middle are used in similar situations,
	the use of either one only reflects the point of view the speaker wants to take\pagenr{133}.
	Kemmer claims that the middle distinguishes itself by its level of distinguishability of the participants\pagenr{135}%
		\note{see \autoref{fig:middle-transitivity-line}}.

	\plainnote{
		\begin{figure*}[b]
			\centering
			\color{black}
			\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=8em,scale=0.9]
				\node             (a) {Two-participant};
				\node[right of=a] (b) {Reflexive};
				\node[right of=b] (c) {Middle};
				\node[right of=c] (d) {One-participant};

				\node[xshift=-5em,yshift=-1em] at (a) (plus) {+};
				\node[xshift=5em, yshift=-1em] at (d) (min)  {-};

				\draw[<->] (plus) -- (min)
					node[below,midway] {Degree of distinguishability of participants};
			\end{tikzpicture}
			\caption{Distinguishability of participants (Kemmer 1993)\label{fig:middle-transitivity-line}}
		\end{figure*}
	}

	Like the passive, the middle demotes the A, but unlike the passive, an A can be a middle-S.
	When the A is S, A is demoted by reducing its agency and volition\pagenr{139}.

	Semiticists focus on the S/O relationship in the middle\pagenr{151}.
	Creason stresses that the participant acts upon itself or in its own interest, therefore having two roles.
	This makes reflexive a subclass to middle.
	This is a too narrow definition%
		\note{several examples are mentioned, e.g. ``This book reads easily''}.
}

\summary{
	\subsubsection*{Summary of passive and middle voice}
	Both middle and passive demote A.
	Active focuses on energy from A,
		while passive and middle focus on the trajectory towards S.
	The S has reduced agentivity and volition compared to A.
	Hence, both voices may promote O to S (if it exists).
	This functional and syntactic overlap explains external overlap\pagenr{156}.
	\note{Characteristics are summarised in \autoref{tab:passive-middle-characteristics}.}
	That passive and middle are defined by the same argument relationships explains internal overlap\pagenr{157}.
	\criticism{It is unclear if there is a difference between the reasons for internal and external overlap.}

	\plainnote{
		\begin{table*}[b]
			\centering
			\begin{tabular}{p{14em} p{14em}}
				\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Passive}}
					& \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Middle}} \\\hline
				\multicolumn{2}{c}{Event trajectory towards S} \\
				\multicolumn{2}{c}{A-demotion definitive} \\
				\multicolumn{2}{c}{O-promotion common} \\
				\multicolumn{2}{c}{Reduced agency and volition of S} \\
				Possible with 1-participant verb, A$\neq$S
					& Possible with 1-participant verb, A$\neq$S or A$=$S \\
				Overlap with reflexive rare
					& Overlap with reflexive common
			\end{tabular}
			\caption{Passive and middle characteristics\pagenr{157}\label{tab:passive-middle-characteristics}}
		\end{table*}
	}
}

\note{%
	\autoref{fig:voice-hierarchy} shows the voice hierarchy as proposed by Benton\pagenr{158},
	which shows that passive \emph{function} can be performed by both middle and passive \emph{voice}.}
\plainnote{
	\begin{figure}[h]
		\centering
		\color{black}
		\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance=3em,scale=0.9,every node/.style={rectangle,draw}]
			\node (event) {Event};
			\node[below left of=event] (active) {Active};
			\node[below right of=event] (passive) {Passive};
			\node[below left of=passive,xshift=-1.2em] (middle) {Middle form};
			\node[below right of=passive,xshift=1.2em] (passivef) {Passive form};

			\draw (event) -> (active);
			\draw (event) -> (passive);
			\draw (passive) -> (middle);
			\draw (passive) -> (passivef);
		\end{tikzpicture}
		\caption{Voice hierarchy\label{fig:voice-hierarchy}}
	\end{figure}
}

\summary{
	Besides demoting A, aspect is another defining feature of the passive voice in Hebrew.
	A passive can often represent both a state and an action, depending on the context\pagenr{159}.
	The passive seems to relate to the resultative aspect%
		\note{%
			``The letter was weighed by John'' vs. ``Two oz. was weighed by the letter''}%
		\pagenr{162}.

	The middle describes a \emph{property} unfolded on the S%
		\note{%
			Compare ``The book was read easily'' (passive)
			and ``The book reads easily'' (middle)}\pagenr{165},
		or the property of a process unfolding on the S\pagenr{167}.
	In some languages, the middle can be both eventive and stative.
}

\end{document}