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+\setcounter{section}{15}
+\section{Theology in the patristic era}
+Christianity is culturally rooted in both Judaism and Greco-Romanism: since
+Jesus was a Jew, many patterns from the Hebrew Bible are taken over by the
+evangelists, and since early Christian theologians were in constant dialogue
+with the Greek intellectual tradition, that is available around the
+Mediterranean Sea thanks to Hellenisation.
+
+The \index{Apostolic fathers}apostolic fathers are those theologians that were
+active in the late first to mid-second century. They are mainly concerned with
+church organisation. \index{Clement}Clement advocates a strong hierarchy.
+\index{Ignatius}Ignatius coins the term \index{Catholicity}\emph{catholicity}
+to stress the unity and universality of the church.
+
+Another topic is \index{Christology}christology. Both Clement and Ignatius
+assert that Jesus existed before Creation, in contrast to the Ebionites, who
+claimed Jesus was but a Jewish teacher. On the other hand, Ignatius also
+affirms Jesus' true humanity, opposing \index{Docetism}docetism, the view that
+Jesus only seemed human.
+
+In dialogue with the Roman empire, the idea of \index{Martyrdom}martyrdom and
+the \index{Apologetics}apologetics came up. The main charges levelled at early
+Christians were: atheism (because they refused to worship the Roman gods);
+cannibalism (because of the Eucharist); and sexual immorality (because of the
+term `brothers and sisters' for everyone). Apologists did not only counter
+these charges but also tried to argue for the reasonability of the new faith.
+\index{Justin Martyr}Justin Martyr is an example of this: he developed the
+\index{Logos!Doctrine}Logos doctrine, which claims that the logos (as the
+rational structure of the cosmos) became incarnate in Christ, implying that
+Christianity is the highest form of truth.
+
+In this first time, \index{Orthodoxy}orthodoxy came up as opposing
+\index{Heresy}heresies. Some heresies: \index{Ebionism}Ebionism tried to
+preserve the Jewish purity of the church, emphasising monotheism and reaching
+out to adoptionism for christology. \index{Docetism}Docetism taught that
+Christianity should separate entirely from its Judaic roots, rejecting the
+Hebrew Bible. Yahweh is an inferior God, reigning through justice and law in
+the evil realm of matter, while Jesus is a true God, working through grace and
+love in the good spiritual realm. \index{Modalism}Modalism is the view that God
+is a single monad expressing itself in three operations.
+
+Most importantly, \index{Gnosticism}gnosticism held that salvation comes via a
+secret given through special revelation. The world is created by an evil
+\index{Demiurge}\emph{Demiurge}. Spiritual souls are trapped in a body but can
+escape by the grace of Jesus Christ. Christ then has to be fully divine (He
+cannot be evil), and therefore gnosticism is partially docetic.
+
+\index{Irenaeus}Irenaeus counters gnosticism by stressing \index{Creation!Ex
+nihilo}creatio ex nihilo and insisting that God keeps interacting with the
+world. Humanity goes through a process of \emph{maturation} that would lead to
+the choice to remain faithful. This process has been stopped by Adam and Eve's
+\index{Sin}sin, which is why redemption or \emph{recapitulation} is needed. In
+the end, salvation is the fulfilment of creation, not an escape from it.
+
+\index{Tertullian}Tertullian attempts to free Christianity from pagan
+philosophy (`What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?'). He also coins the term
+\index{Trinity}\emph{trinitas}, which he sees as three persons in one
+substance.
+
+\index{Origen}Origen is ambiguous: sometimes he seems to claim that the Son is
+eternal and has his personal being from the Father (eternal begottenness); at
+other times he suggests a subordinationist arrangement among the three members
+of the Trinity.
+
+\medskip
+In the fourth century, Christianity became the state religion under
+Constantine. After this era, theology becomes preoccupied with the doctrines of
+the Trinity and of Christ.
+
+Also, the NT canon was closed, using four criteria:
+\index{Apostolicity}apostolicity (should reflect apostolic teaching);
+\index{Catholicity}catholicity (should be relevant to the whole church);
+\index{Orthodoxy}orthodoxy (should agree to the rules of faith, the creeds);
+and \index{Tradition}traditional usage (should be used widely in the life of
+the church). Much of the canon was already decided on in the second century,
+but the first list of the NT canon as we know it today dates from 367.
+
+On the \index{Trinity}Trinity, \index{Arianism}Arius proclaimed that the Son
+was a creature. Alexander and \index{Athanasius}Athanasius argued that if Jesus
+wasn't truly God, he couldn't accomplish redemption. In \index{Nicea}Nicea in
+325 the debate was settled: the Son is of the same essence
+(\index{Homoousios}\emph{homoousios}) as the Father. Only the Creator can
+redeem creation. Some eastern church leaders then proposed
+\index{Homoiousios}\emph{homoiousios}, `of similar essence', but this was
+condemned in \index{Constantinople}Constantinople in 381. There are three
+divine persons (hypostaseis or personae) who share one essence or substance
+(ousia or substantia).
+
+On Christ, the question was how He can be both divine and human. The
+Alexandrian school (notably \index{Apollinarius}Apollinarius) emphasised his
+divinity and the unity of his person: the Logos overshadowed Jesus' humanity;
+the Antiochene school (Theodore of Mopsuestia) his humanity and his two
+natures: how could a non-human ever redeem humanity? The Alexiandrans proposed
+the term \index{Theotokos}\emph{Theotokos}, `God-bearer', intensifying the
+debate. This idea was confirmed at \index{Chalcedon}Chalcedon in 451, where it
+was also said that Christ is \emph{one} person with \emph{two} natures.
+
+\medskip
+The \index{Cappadocians}Cappadocians extended the logic of Nicea (if Jesus
+brings salvation, and salvation is deification, then Jesus must be divine) to
+the Spirit (if the Spirit brings sanctification, \dots), thus affirming the
+oneness of the whole Trinity. They also distinguished
+\index{Hypostasis}hypostasis and \index{Ousia}ousia: the latter is the essence
+common to the three members of the Trinity, while the first is their
+individuated existence. Gregory of Nyssa compares the Trinity to Peter, James
+and John, sharing humanity.
+
+\index{Augustine}Augustine proposes a psychological analogy for the Trinity
+rather than a social one. The Trinity is then compared with mind, knowledge and
+love.
+
+The \index{Donatism}Donatists claimed that bishops who seized to persecutions
+were traitors. Augustine counters by saying that even though the Church is
+built up from sinful humans, it is still holy because it participates in
+Christ's holiness.
+
+The \index{Pelagianism}Pelagians said that humans can, also after Adam's sin,
+achieve true perfection because of free will. Augustine counters by claiming
+that human nature is infected by \index{Sin!Original}original sin.